TABLE III

["Grains. Acetic acid (anhydrous) 11·59 \" \" (hydrated or glacial) 13·64 Citric acid (crystallised) 15·23 Hydrochloric acid (dry or gaseous) 8·29 \" \" (sp. gr. 1·16) 24·78 Nitric acid (anhydrous) 12·27 \" \" (sp. gr. 1·5) 15·23 \" \" (sp. gr. 1·42) 20·45 Oxalic acid (crystallised) 14·32 Sulphuric acid (anhydrous) 9·09 \" \" (sp. gr. 1·845) 11·14 Tartaric acid (anhydrous) 15·00 \" \" (crystallised) 17·05", "2. A convenient modification of the preceding method of acidimetry consists in using the common apparatus figured in the margin and employing fused chloride of calcium to dry the evolved carbonic acid gas, instead of concentrated sulphuric acid. The mode of conducting the process and obtaining the results is precisely the same as in that last explained, and need not, therefore, be repeated. In this case, however, suction must be applied to the small tube (_g_), instead of (_d_) in the accompanying engraving.", "_Obs._ These methods, though apparently complicated, are not difficult to perform, when once well understood. The application of heat after the completion of the operation is indispensable, as, if it were neglected, from 0·3 to 0·4 of a gr. of carbonic acid would be retained in the liquid. The bicarbonate of soda must be pure, and perfectly free from any neutral carbonate or sesquicarbonate of soda. To ensure this, the bicarbonate of commerce is reduced to a uniform powder, put into a glass jar, and covered with its own weight of cold distilled or rain water, and allowed to stand for twenty-four hours, with frequent stirring. It is then placed upon a funnel, the tube of which is stopped with loose cotton, so as to allow the lye to drain off. It is next washed several times with small quantities of cold distilled or rain water, and after being dried by pressure between some sheets of blotting-paper, without the aid of heat, is kept for use in a well-closed glass bottle. Before use, it may be tested to ascertain its purity. If pure, it neither reddens turmeric paper, nor gives a brick-red precipitate with a solution of bichloride of mercury. Pure bicarbonate of potassa may be used instead of bicarbonate of soda; but in either case it is always proper to use an excess, so as to leave some undecomposed carbonate after the operation has ended. The presence of a little sodium chloride or sulphate in the bicarbonate will not interfere in the least, but the absence of every trace of neutral carbonate is a _sine quâ non_.", "(_a_) Wide-mouthed flask, containing the sample for examination, hermetically stopped by the cork (_e_) and supporting the tubes (_b_) and (_c_). (_b_) Bulbous tube, containing fragments of fused chloride of calcium, terminating in a capillary tube (_g_). (_c_) Bent tube, reaching nearly to the bottom of the flask (_a_). (_d_) Small tube containing bicarbonate of soda. (_e_) Cork fitting bottle (_a_), and the tubes (_b_) and (_c_), hermetically. (_f_) Silken thread, suspending the small tube (_d_).]", "The two above methods of estimating the amount of acid are only superior to the generally used methods first described, when the presence of colouring matter interferes with the reaction of the litmus used to show the point of neutralisation.", "_Observations._ When great accuracy is required in conducting the neutralisation of the solution in estimating volumetrically with litmus as an indicator, it is proper to prepare and keep standard solutions of sulphuric acid and oxalic acid, with which occasionally to try the alkaline test-liquor. The only difficulty in the process is to avoid over-saturation of the acid-sample. Great care must be taken not to exceed the precise point of neutralisation of the acid. After adding each portion of the test-liquor, the solution should be well stirred up, and as soon as the effervescence becomes languid the greatest caution must be observed in adding more. The proper point is arrived at when the liquor ceases to redden litmus, and does not alter the colour of turmeric paper; if it turns the latter brown, too much of the test-liquid has been added, and the operation becomes useless. Towards the end of the experiment, when great precision is required, a gentle heat may be applied, in order to expel the free carbonic acid in the liquor; but otherwise this is unnecessary. The peculiar soapy odour gradually acquired by the liquor as it nears saturation will materially assist the operator when testing vinegars, and some of the other vegetable acids. A good method is to tint either the acid-sample or the test-liquid with a few drops of litmus, as noticed under ACETIMETRY; when the reddish shade will gradually deepen into 'purple,' or the purple into 'red,' as the point of saturation is approached; and the blue colour will be perfectly restored as soon as this point is reached. Dr Ure recommends keeping the ammonia-test ready tinged with litmus, and the same applies to other test-liquors.", "In commerce, the strength of acids is frequently reckoned with reference to a standard, termed 100 acidimetric degrees. This is taken from the circumstance that 91 gr. of commercial oil of vitriol, of a sp. gr. of 1·845, exactly saturate 100 gr. of dried carbonate of soda. An acid requiring only 35, 50, or any other number of grains of the carbonate to saturate it, is in like manner termed of so many degrees strong; the number of grains representing in each case an equal number of degrees. This method originated with the French chemists, and though only conventional, and principally confined to commercial purposes, is especially adapted to practical men but little conversant with chemistry, yet very ready in retaining or calculating anything on the centesimal scale, from its similarity to monetary language and reckoning.", "ACID'ITY.= _Syn._ ACID'ITAS, L.; ACIDITÉ, Fr.; SÄURE, Ger. In _chemistry_, the state of being acid. In _physiology_, &c., the impression given to the organs of taste by tart or acid substances. Sourness. See FERMENTATION, MALT-LIQUORS, WINES, &c.", "Gas'tric Acidity.= Acidity of the stomach; a common and well-known symptom of weak or disordered digestion.", "_Treat., &c._ Small doses of absorbents or antacids, three or four times daily, to which some tonic bitter, as calumba, cascarilla, chamomile, gentian, or orange-peel, may be added. Stomachic stimulants, as capsicum, ginger, mustard, or wine, &c., taken with, or after, meals, are also useful. The diet should be light and nutritious; and acescent vegetables, over-ripe fruit, and weak new beer or other liquors avoided as much as possible. The bowels should be kept regular, but not open, by the occasional use of mild aperients, as rhubarb, aloes, castor oil, senna, or mercurial pill, or compounds containing them. Excessive looseness or diarrh[oe]a may be checked by a few doses of carbonate of soda, chalk-mixture, or astringents.", "In INFANCY this affection is usually accompanied by restlessness, continual crying, drawing up of the legs forcibly towards the body, hiccups, vomiting, diarrh[oe]a, sour eructations, griping pains, green stools, and debility; often followed, when the irritation is considerable, by convulsions. The treatment consists in relieving the bowels of all offending matter by a few doses of rhubarb-and-magnesia. The looseness or diarrh[oe]a may be checked by a few small doses of carbonate of soda or chalk mixture; or better, in an infant which is fed by lime-water (1 or 2 fl. oz.) mixed with as much milk. Two or three drops of caraway, cinnamon, dill, or peppermint water, on sugar (not with the food) will tend to promote the expulsion, and prevent the undue generation of gases. The flatulence usually disappears with the acidity. The occasional administration of 1 to 3 gr. of quicksilver-with-chalk ('grey powder'), will frequently remove the complaint, and prevent its recurrence, when all other means fail. The diet of both nurse and infant should be carefully regulated.", "See ANTACIDS, DYSPEPSIA, &c.", "_Treatment for Horses._ Alkalies, their carbonates and bicarbonates; alterative doses of aloes with alkalies; chalk, carbonate of magnesia; mineral acids; bismuth, arsenic, nux vomica, or strychnia.", "ACIDS, EFFECTS OF, ON VEGETATION.= This subject has been ably investigated of recent years by Dr Angus Smith and Mr Rothwell, and the practical importance of their labours is shown by the circumstance that an Act of Parliament passed in 1875 renders it penal for the proprietors of alkali works to condense not less than 95 per cent. of the hydrochloric acid evolved in the process of manufacturing 'soda,' also to allow air, smoke, or chimney gases to escape into the atmosphere containing more than one fifth of a grain of hydrochloric acid per cubic foot. Every owner of an alkali work is likewise required to 'use the best practical means of preventing the discharge into the atmosphere of all other noxious gases arising from such work, or of rendering such gases harmless when discharged.'", "The injurious effects of acids on vegetation are indicated chiefly by the shrivelled-up appearance which the leaves of herbage, trees, &c., exhibit in the vicinity of chemical works in which the condensation of noxious gases (hydrochloric acid, sulphurous acid, sulphuric acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, nitric acid, and oxides of nitrogen and chlorine) is not effectually carried out. According to Mr Rothwell, 'in fields exposed to acid vapours handfuls of dead grass may be pulled up in the spring, smelling strongly of the vapour, and that trees, under similar influences, become bark-bound.'", "The following is a list of trees arranged in the order of their susceptibility. (Rothwell.)", "_Forest Trees._ Larch, spruce fir, Scotch fir, black Italian poplar, Lombardy poplar, ash, oak, elm, birch, alder, sycamore.", "_Fruit Trees._ Damson, greengage, Halewood plum, Jacob plum, pears, apples, cherries.", "_Shrubs, Evergreens, and Wild Plants._ British laurels, Portugal laurels, _Aucuba_ _Japonica_, Barberry evergreen, hazel, guelder rose, sloe thorn, hawthorn, raspberries, gooseberries, blackberries, gorse, hollies.", "_Farm Crops._ Potatoes, mangel, white clover and rhubarb, red clover, trefoil, rye-grass, wheat, oats, barley, common turnips, swedes.", "_Second list of Plants affected by Noxious Vapours, mixing the classes according to the effects produced on each._", "I. Fern--only in the summer.", "Scotch firs, spruce, and larches--a little in winter.", "Clover (white and red), trefoil, rye-grass, poplars, hawthorn, potatoes--receive damage in winter to roots.", "II. Wheat receives some damage in winter.", "Oats in May, when in the grass state, soon receive damage.", "Barley, mangel, common turnips, rhubarb.", "III. Laurels (British and Portugal), aucubas, yews, holly, gorse--receive damage in winter, but more in summer.", "Old grass meadows and pastures receive much damage in winter.", "IV. Ashes, oaks, hazels, horse-chestnuts, walnuts, Spanish chestnuts, sloe thorn.", "V. Swedish turnip and cabbages, damson, other fruit trees, beech, elm, birch, alder, sycamores.", "ACIDULÆ.= [L. pl.] In _medicine_, mineral waters rich in carbonic acid.", "ACIDULATED=. _Syn_. ACIDULATUS, L.; ACIDULÉ, Fr. Blended or flavoured with an acid; made slightly sour. See KALI (Acidulated), DROPS, LOZENGES, &c. In _chemistry_, the addition of an acid to a neutral or alkaline liquid until it reddens blue litmus paper.", "ACIDUM.= [L.] An acid.", "ACNE.= [_Syn._ PIMPLED FACE.] There are two forms of this affection. 1st. In young persons of both sexes; generally in phlegmatic habits. The disease shows itself by hard pimples, with a small black spot on the apex, unaccompanied with redness or inflammation at first, but after a while they become red and inflamed, and sometimes suppurate, with a greasy look of the skin between them. In this form of acne the black spots should be picked out with a needle or a small pair of tweezers. A long piece of thick matter, like a worm, is extracted; but is no worm. Afterwards wash the face with water in which a small piece of Quillar bark has been steeped, or with bitter almond emulsion, or borax, one drachm, water 4 oz. When there is no inflammation, use Eau de Cologne, or a few drops of oil of rosemary dissolved in spirit of wine, taking a small dose of magnesia in the morning, or milk of sulphur daily. When the pimples are very sluggish the cautious application of tincture of iodine, or of ointment of nitrate of mercury, will be found serviceable.", "2nd. Arises from intemperance. In this case a gradual change of habits is essential. The use of soap should be avoided, and recourse had to warm fomentations of slippery elm, or thin oat gruel. The following should be applied to the pimples:--Cold cream, 1 oz., Goulard's extract 20 drops, mixed together; or lemon juice diluted, or solution of borax in water. The internal administration of the mineral acids combined with bitter tonics, or small doses of iodide of potassium, will be found effectual.", "_Treatment._ Fomentations, poultices, chloride of zinc solution externally; sulphur and alteratives internally.", "ACOLOGY=. _Syn._ In _medicine_, the doctrine of, or a discourse on, remedies or the materia medica.", "ACONITE.= (-nite). _Syn._ ACON'ITUM, L.; ACONIT, Fr.: AKONITUM, EISENHUT, STURMHUT, Ger. Monkshood; wolfsbane. In _botany_, a genus of exogenous plants. _Nat. ord._, Ranunculaceæ; _Sex. syst._, Polyandria Trigynia. They are characterised by showy purple or yellow helmet-shaped flowers growing in panicles, deeply cut leaves, and perennial (usually) tap-shaped or tapering roots. The whole plant is highly poisonous, the roots being more poisonous than the leaves. In _medicine_ and _materia medica_, the plant Aconitum Napellus (which _see_).", "_Symptoms._ Numbness and tingling in the mouth and throat, which are parched; followed by giddiness, dimness of sight, and (sometimes) delirium, but seldom complete coma; there is numbness and tingling of the limbs, a loss of power in the legs, (in some cases) frothing at the mouth, severe abdominal pains, nausea, vomiting, and diarrh[oe]a; tremors or twitchings of the voluntary muscles, (sometimes) convulsions (in animals, but not in man); sharp cries; pupil (generally) dilated, very rarely contracted; pulse fitful and sinking; skin cold and livid; difficulty of breathing; general prostration; loss of sensation or feeling, insensibility, general trembling, fainting, and sudden death. The eyes are often glaring; and, in some cases, the patient is completely paralysed, yet retains consciousness to the last. The case generally proves fatal in from 1 to 8 hours. If it last beyond this period there is hope of recovery. (Fleming.)", "_Antidotes._ Ammonia, or brandy, with artificial respiration if necessary: cold affusion and friction, with warm towels to the back and limbs. See ALKALOIDS.", "ACONITE LEAVES= (B. Ph.). _Syn._ ACONITI FOLIA, L. The fresh leaves and flowering tops of _aconitum napellus_, Linn., gathered when about one third of the flowers are expanded, from plants cultivated in Britain.", "_Char._ Leaves smooth, palmate, divided into five deeply cut wedge-shaped segments; excizing slowly, when chewed, a sensation of tingling. Flowers numerous, irregular, deep blue, in dense racemes.", "_Prep._ Extractum aconiti.", "ACONITE ROOT.= (B. Ph.). _Syn._ ACONITI RADIX, L. The dried root of _aconitum napellus_. Imported from Germany, or cultivated in Britain, and collected in the winter or early spring before the leaves have appeared.", "_Prep._ Aconitia, the active principle; Linimentum Aconiti, 1 ounce to 1 fluid ounce; Tinctura Aconiti, 54-1/2 grains to 1 fluid ounce.", "_Char._ Usually from one to three inches long, not thicker than the finger at the crown, tapering, blackish-brown, internally whitish. A _minute_ portion, cautiously chewed, causes prolonged tingling and numbness.", "ACONITI FOLIA.= See ACONITE LEAVES.", "ACONITI RADIX.= See ACONITE ROOT.", "ACONITIA.= C_{30}H_{47}O_{7}N. (B. P.) _Syn._ ACONITIA, L. An alkaloid obtained from aconite.", "Take of Aconite root, in coarse powder, 14 pounds. Rectified spirit } Distilled water } of each Solution or ammonia } a sufficiency. Pure ether } Diluted sulphuric acid}", "Pour upon the aconite root three gallons of the spirit, mix them well, and heat until ebullition commences; then cool and macerate for four days. Transfer the whole to a displacement apparatus, and percolate, adding more spirit, when requisite, until the root is exhausted. Distil off the greater part of the spirit from the tincture, and evaporate the remainder over a water bath until the whole of the alcohol has been dissipated. Mix the residual extract thoroughly with twice its weight of boiling distilled water, and when it has cooled to the temperature of the atmosphere, filter through paper. To the filtered liquid add solution of ammonia in slight excess, and heat them gently over a water bath. Separate the precipitate on a filter, and dry it. Reduce this to coarse powder, and macerate it in successive portions of the pure ether with frequent agitation. Decant the several products, mix and distil off the ether until the extract is dry. Dissolve the dry extract in warm distilled water acidulated with the sulphuric acid; and, when the solution is cold, precipitate it by the cautious addition of solution of ammonia diluted with four times its bulk of distilled water. Wash the precipitate on a filter with a small quantity of cold distilled water, and dry it by slight pressure between folds of filtering paper.", "_Characters and Tests._ A white, usually amorphous, solid, soluble in 150 parts of cold, and 50 of hot water, and much more soluble in alcohol and in ether; strongly alkaline to reddened litmus, neutralising acids, and precipitated from them by the caustic alkalies, but not by carbonate of ammonia or the bicarbonates of soda or potash. It melts with heat, and burns with a smoky flame, leaving no residue when burned with free access of air. When rubbed on the skin it causes a tingling sensation, followed by prolonged numbness. It is a very active poison.", "ACONITIA, CRYSTALLISED.= C_{27}H_{40}NO_{10}. Exhaust the root of wild aconite, carefully picked and powdered, with very strong alcohol, to which 1 per cent. of tartaric acid has been added. Distil at a gentle heat, and sheltered from the air, to recover the alcohol. Treat the extract with water to separate all the fatty and resinous matters. The solution which contains the aconite in the state of acid tartrate is first shaken with ether to remove colouring matters, and then the alkaloid is set free by the addition of alkaline bicarbonate, until the cessation of effervescence. A fresh treatment with ether of this alkaline solution removes the alkaloid, which crystallizes upon the concentration of the ethereal liquid, with an addition of petroleum spirit. The crystals are colourless tables, rhombic or hexagonal, according to the modifications produced principally in the acute angles. Crystallized aconitia is soluble in alcohol, ether, benzine, and chloroform; insoluble in petroleum oils and glycerine.", "ACONITIA NITRATE, CRYSTALLISED. Crystallised aconitine q. s.; nitric acid, sp. gr. 1·442, q. s. Saturate the nitric acid with the aconitine and evaporate. Voluminous crystals are easily obtained (from 'Formulæ for New Medicaments adopted by the Paris Pharmaceutical Society').--'Pharm. Journal.' Owing to the decomposition which this alkaloid undergoes in the animal organism, as well as to its liability to decompose during the process of evaporation, and exposure to the air, it often becomes extremely difficult, if not impossible, to obtain it in a separate state in conducting a _post-mortem_ examination. The physiological effects seem to furnish the most prominent and characteristic evidence of its presence in such cases, or at any rate these may serve as a valuable guide to the toxicologist.", "Uncrystallised aconitia is sometimes contaminated with delphinia, as well as with aconella, another constituent of aconite root. For the dissection of these see ALKALOIDS. One fiftieth of a grain of aconitia is stated to have killed a dog.", "_Antidotes._ See ACONITE.", "ACONITIC ACID.= (Identical with _Pyrocitric Acid_.) An acid extracted by Peschier from _aconitum napellus_, and by Bracconnot from _equisetum fluviatile_. It exists in these plants chiefly in the form of aconitate of calcium.", "_Properties._ A white, colourless, semi-crystalline mass.", "ACONITINA.= See ACONITIA.", "ACONITINE.= See ACONITIA.", "ACONI'TUM.= [L.] Aconite. The pharmacop[oe]ial name of _aconitum napellus_(see _below_).", "Aconitum Ferox.= (Ind. P.) _Habitat_. Temperate and sub-Alpine Himalaya, at 10,000 to 14,000 feet elevation, from Gurhwal to Sikkim.", "_Officinal part._ The dried root (_Aconiti ferocis Radix_), in common with those of other Himalayan species, viz., _aconitum napellus_, _a. palmatum_, and _a. luridum_, constitutes the drug well known in the bazaars of Upper India under the Hindostani name of _Bish_ or _Bikh_.", "It occurs in the form of tuberous roots of a more or less conical form, from two to three inches in length, and from half an inch to one inch in thickness at their upper end. They have usually a shrunken appearance, and are covered with a dark shrivelled bark; fracture shining and resinous; sometimes waxy, varying in colour from pale to deep brown. Some specimens are white and spongy; and these, it is asserted, are superior in activity to the more compact kinds. Inodorous; taste at first slightly bitter, leaving a peculiar sense of numbness on the tongue and fauces. Active principle, aconitia.", "_Medical Properties and Uses._ Similar to those of _aconitum napellus_ of Europe. _Preparations._ This root may be advantageously used for the manufacture of aconitia, the proportion of this alkaloid being much larger than in the European drug; and also for the preparation of Linimentum Aconiti. From its greater activity, however, it is unsuited for the preparation of this tincture, which is intended for external use.", "Aconitum Hetorophyllum.= (Ind. P.) _Habitat_. Western temperate Himalaya, at 8000 to 13,000 feet elevation; from Indus to Kumaon. _Officinal part._ The dried root (_Aconiti heterophylli Radix_). Ovoid tuberous roots, tapering downwards to a point, from one to one and a half inches or more in length, and from three eighths to half an inch in thickness. The surface, which is covered with a thin greyish epidermis, is slightly wrinkled longitudinally, and marked here and there with root scars. It is inodorous, and of a bitter taste, devoid of acridity. Does not contain aconitia. It may be readily distinguished from other roots sold in the bazaars under the same vernacular name (Atis) by its characteristic bitterness. _Properties._ Tonic and antiperiodic. It may be administered internally with safety, as it contains no poisonous principle. _Therapeutic uses_. In convalescence after debilitating diseases, and in intermittent and other paroxysmal fevers, it has been found an efficient remedy. _Doses._ Tonic, 5 to 10 grains thrice daily; antiperiodic, 20 to 30 grains of the powdered root every three or four hours, irrespective of the presence of pyrexia.", "Aconitum Napell'us.= [Linn.] _Syn._ ACONI'TUM, Ph. L., E., & D.; ACONITNAPÈL, CHAPERON DE MOINE, Fr.; EISENHUT, BLAUERSTURMHUT, Ger. Early blue wolfsbane, or deadly aconite. _Hab._ Various parts of Europe; grows wild in England, flowering in June and July. The fresh and dried leaves (ACONITI FO''LIUM), Ph. L. & E. The root (ACONITI RA'DIX), Ph. L. & D. This is the species of aconite ordered in the pharmacop[oe]ias, and commonly used in medicine. When chewed it imparts a sensation of acrimony, followed by a pungent heat of the lips, gums, palate, and fauces, which is succeeded by a general tremor and chilliness. The juice applied to a wound or the unsound skin affects the whole nervous system. Even by remaining long in the hand, or on the bosom, it produces unpleasant symptoms. Fatal cases of poisoning, by eating the root in mistake for horseradish, have been common of late years. The two roots may be, however, easily distinguished from one another; when scraped aconite emits an earthy, and horseradish its well-known pungent odour. Moreover, the shape of the roots is very different. In the accompanying figure _a_ represents aconite root, and _b_ horseradish root.", "The leaves should be gathered as soon as the flowers appear. The root should be taken up in autumn. When the whole plant is employed, it should be gathered as soon as the flowers begin to open. The strength (richness in aconitia) varies considerably with the time of the year. 1 oz. of the fresh root contains 1/4 to 3/4 gr. of aconitia; 1 lb. of the dried English root contains from 12 to 36 gr. (Herapath). The leaves possess the greatest activity just before flowering; the root, after it. The root is at all times fully six times as strong as the leaves or herb. The wild plant contains much more aconitia than that which is cultivated. The herb, and all its preparations, lose their efficacy if long kept. The powder, more particularly, cannot be relied on. Mr Holmes says it is difficult to find in a commercial sample of aconite root one root in a dozen, which upon fracture appears sound and in good condition.", "_Properties, Antidotes, &c._ See ACONITE.", "_Tests, &c._ See ACONITE.", "_Uses, &c._ In small doses aconite is narcotic, powerfully diaphoretic, and sometimes diuretic; in larger ones, the symptoms are similar to those produced by aconitia. It acts as a powerful sedative on the heart's action, and destroys sensibility without disturbing the mental faculties. It has been given in chronic rheumatism, gout, paralysis, scirrhus, scrofula, cancers, venereal nodes, epilepsy, amaurosis, intermittents, &c.; but its exhibition requires the greatest possible caution. As a topical benumber it has been used with great advantage in painful affections depending on increased sensibility of the nerves. Externally it \"is most valuable for the cure of neuralgic and rheumatic pains. In neuralgia, no remedy, I believe, will be found equal to it. One application of the tincture produces some amelioration; and after a few times' use, it frequently happens that the patient is cured. In some cases, the benefit appears almost magical. In others, however, it entirely fails to give permanent relief.\" \"I do not think that in any (case) it proves injurious.\" \"When it succeeds, it gives more or less relief at the first application. When the disease depends on inflammation, aconite will be found, I think, an unavailing remedy.\" \"In rheumatic pains, unaccompanied with local swelling or redness, aconite is frequently of very great service.\" (Pereira, iii, 691.) _Dose_, of the powder, 1 to 2 gr., gradually increased to 6 or 8. Dr Stocrk was the first who gave wolfsbane internally, about the year 1762. It has since been successfully employed in Germany in cases of chronic rheumatism, gout, &c., some of which were of long standing and had resisted every other remedy. In England it has been less extensively used.", "Aconitum Panicula'tum.= Panicled wolfsbane; a species formerly ordered in the Ph. L.; and, with _a. napellus_, also in the Ph. U. S. It is less active than the officinal species.", "A'CORN.= _Syn._ GLANS. QUER'CUS, L. The seed or fruit of the oak. In the early ages of the world, acorns probably formed one of the principal articles of the food of man. (Ovid, _Met._, i, 106; Virgil, _Georg._, i, 8; &c.) In modern times, during periods of scarcity, they have been consumed as food on the Continent. Besides starch, they contain a peculiar species of sugar, which crystallises in prisms, and is unfermentable; they also contain tannic and gallic acids. Mannite and dulcose are the substances which it most nearly resembles. (M. Dessaignes.) During the autumn, acorns are said to be sometimes poisonous to cattle and sheep. Supposed cases of so-called acorn poisoning are best treated by withdrawing the supply of acorns, or removing the animals from the pastures on which the acorns fall, and by the administration of aperients, alkalies, and stimulants.", "AC'ORUS CAL'AMUS.= See SWEET FLAG.", "ACOTYLE'DONS= (-ko-te-l[=e]'-). _Syn._ ACOTYLE'DONES (d[)o]n-[=e]z; L., prim. Gr.), Jussieu; ACOTYLÉDONS, Fr.; OHNE SAMENLAPPEN, Ger. In _botany_, plants whose seeds are not furnished with distinct cotyledons or seed-lobes. _Acotyledonous plants_ form one of the two great divisions of the vegetable kingdom, according to the natural system. They are remarkable by increasing chiefly in length, by additions to their end; and not by addition to the outside, as in Exogens; nor to the inside, as in Endogens. They are also termed ASEX'UAL and FLOWERLESS PLANTS, and answer to the CRYPTOGAMIA of the Linnean system. See ACROGENS, CELLULARES, THALLOGENS, &c.", "ACOUS'TICS= (-kow'-). The science of audition and sound; that branch of physics which treats of their cause, nature, and phenomena. The doctrine of the production and transmission of sound is termed DIACOUS'TICS; that of reflected sound CATACOUS'TICS.", "Acoustics.= In _medicine_, remedies employed to relieve deafness. See DEAFNESS and DROPS, ACOUSTIC.", "ACQUETTA.= [IT., _Little Water._] _Syn._ AQUA TOFFANA; A. TOFFANIA; ACQUETTA DI NAPOLI DELLA TOFFANA, IT. A celebrated poison, prepared by an Italian woman named Toffano, or Tophana, and in great request in Rome about the middle of the 17th century. The composition of this poison has been a matter of frequent controversy. Pope Alexander VII, in his proclamation, described it as \"aquafortis distilled into arsenic.\" This would produce a concentrated solution of arsenic acid. The Emperor Charles VI, who was governor of Naples during Toffano's trial, declared to his physician, Garelli, that it was arsenic (arsenious acid) dissolved in _aqua cymbalariá_. According to Gerarde this cymbalarià was an aquatic species of pennywort, highly poisonous. The only objection to the latter statement is the smallness of the dose, regard being had to the comparative insolubility of arsenious acid; but if the woman Toffano prepared two poisons, as is probable from history--one, a single dose of which was fatal, and another, of which the dose required repetition, and which was more gradual in its activity--the discrepancy will be at once removed.", "AC'RID.= _Syn._ AC'ER, AC'RIS, L.; ACRE (âcre), Fr.; BEISSEND, SCHARF, Ger. In _chemistry_ and _medicine_, sharp, pungent, acrimonious. Acrid substances are such as excite a sensation of pungency and heat when tasted, and which irritate and inflame the skin; as mustard, turpentine, cantharides, &c.", "ACRIDITY.= _Syn._ ACRETÉ, Fr.; ACRITUDO, L. The quality of being acrid.", "AC'RIMONY.= _Syn._ ACRIMO'NIA, L.; ACRIMONIÉ, ACRETÉ, Fr.; SCHARFE, Ger. In _medicine_ and _chemistry_, the quality or property of inflaming, irritating, corroding, dissolving, or destroying other bodies.", "ACROGENS.= _Syn._ ACROGENÆ, L.; ACROGÈNES, Fr. In _botany_, acotyledonous or cryptogamic plants, in which stems and leaves, or an organisation approaching leaves, are distinguishable; which have stomates or breathing spores on their surface, are propagated by spores, and increase by the growth of the stem at the point only. Ferns and club-mosses are examples of this class of plants.", "ACROLEIN.= _Syn._ ACRYLIC ALCOHOL. This substance occurs amongst the products of decomposition when glycerine or any of its compounds is subjected to ordinary distillation. It derives its name from its violently irritant effect upon the mucous membranes of the eyes and respiratory organs. It is best prepared by the process of Redtenbacher (see 'Leibig's Ann.,' xlvii, 114), by distilling in a capacious retort, a mixture of glycerine with phosphoric anhydride, or with hydric-potassic sulphate (the acid sulphate or bisulphate of potash); the vapours must be condensed in a properly cooled receiver, which is luted on to the retort and provided with a tube opening into a chimney having a good draught. The distilled liquid separates into two layers, the upper one consisting of acrolein, and the lower one of an aqueous solution of the same substance mixed with a quantity of acrylic acid. This distillate, after digestion with finely powdered litharge, with the object of neutralising the acid, must be rectified by the heat of a water bath: the acrolein so obtained must be submitted to a second rectification from calcic chloride. All these operations must be conducted in vessels filled with carbonic anhydride (carbonic acid) because acrolein becomes rapidly oxidized when exposed to the air.", "Acrolein is a clear colourless liquid, lighter than water, boiling at about 125° F. It has great refracting power and a burning taste; when pure it is neutral to test paper.", "AC'ROSPIRE= (-spire). _Syn._ ACROSPI'RA, L.; PLUMULE, Fr.; BLATTKEIM, Ger. The shoot or sprout of a seed, when it begins to grow; the part of a germinating seed termed the plume, or plumula.", "When the growth of a seed begins to be developed, the germ, from which the stem originates, shoots forth under the form of a delicate curved fibre, which, gradually bursting its covering, makes its appearance at the end of the seed. The fibrils of the radicle first sprout forth from the tip of the grain; a white elevation appears, that soon divides into three or more radicles, which rapidly grow larger, and are succeeded by the plumula, which peeps forth at the same point, in the form of a pale green leaflet, which, twisting thence beneath the husk to the other end of the seed, ultimately bursts its prison-house, and becomes a perfect leaf. See GERMINATION and MALTING.", "ACTINIC RAYS.= See ACTINISM.", "ACTINISM.= _Syn._ ACTINIC RAYS; CHEMICAL RAYS. A term given to a supposed principle accompanying the heat and light of the sunbeam. Actinic rays chiefly exist beyond the violet extremity of the solar spectrum, and are characterised by the power of exciting chemical change, _e.g._, the decomposition of certain silver salts (in photography); the combination of a mixture of chlorine and hydrogen, &c. The so-called vital functions of animals and plants are also greatly influenced by the actinic or chemical rays.", "ACTINOGRAPH.= An instrument for registering the intensity of the chemical influence (_actinism_) of the sun's rays.", "ACT, TOWNS IMPROVEMENT CLAUSES, 1847= (10 & 11 Vict., c. 34), The following provisions of this Act are incorporated in the Public Health Act, 1875, and refer exclusively to urban districts:--", "1. With respect to naming the streets and numbering the houses.", "2. With respect to improving the line of the streets and removing the obstructions.", "3. With respect to ruinous or dangerous buildings.", "4. With respect to precautions during the construction and repair of sewers, streets, and houses.", "5. With respect to the regulation of slaughter houses.", "Notices for alterations under the 69th, 70th, and 71st sections, directions under the 73rd section, and orders under the 74th section of the said Towns Improvement Clauses Act, may, at the option of the urban authority, be served on owners instead of occupiers, or on owners as well as occupiers, and the cost of works done under any of these sections may, when notices have been so served on owners, be recovered from owners instead of occupiers; and when such cost is recovered from occupiers, so much thereof may be deducted from the rent of the premises where the work is done as is allowed in the case of private rates under the Act.", "AC'TUAL.= Real, effectual, absolute; as opposed to that which is merely virtual or potential. In _surgery_, a red-hot iron, or any other heated body, used as a cautery, is termed the ACTUAL CAUTERY; whilst a caustic or escharotic so employed is called the POTENTIAL CAUTERY.", "ACTUAL CAUTERY.= See ACTUAL.", "ACUTE'.= _Syn._ ACUT'US, L.; AIGU, Fr.; HEFTIG, HITZIG, SPITZIG, Ger. Sharp, pointed, sensitive. Applied to the senses, as acute hearing, eyesight, &c. In _pathology_, diseases exhibiting violent symptoms, and whose course is short, are said to be acute diseases.", "ADAPTER.= In _chemistry_, a tube placed between two vessels (commonly a retort and receiver) for the purpose of uniting them or increasing the distance between them, so as to facilitate the condensation of vapour in distillation. (See _figure._)", "ADDER'S TONGUE.= _Syn._ COMMON ADDER'S TONGUE; OPHIOGLOS'SUM VULGA'TUM, Linn. A perennial plant, of the natural order Filices (DC.), growing wild in England. It is found in our woods and pastures, and flowers in May and June. It was once used to form a celebrated traumatic or vulnerary ointment and is still highly esteemed among rustic herbalists.", "ADEPS.= _Syn._ LARD. See ADEPS PRÆPARATUS, FAT, and LARD.", "ADEPS BENZOATUS.= _Syn._ BENZOATED LARD.", "ADEPS PRÆPARATUS.= _Syn._ AXUNGE; PREPARED LARD.", "ADHE'SION= (-h[=e]-zhün). _Syn._ ADHÆ'SIO, L.; ADHESION, Fr.; ANHÄNGUNG, ARXLEBUNG, Ger. The act or state of sticking or being united.", "Adhesion.= In _physics_, the force with which bodies remain attached to each other when brought into contact; _e.g._, ink adheres to paper, paint adheres to wood, &c. It differs from 'cohesion' in representing the force with which different bodies cling together; whereas cohesion is the force which unites the particles of a homogeneous body with each other, _e.g._, particles of iron cohere and form a mass of iron; particles of water cohere and form a mass of water, &c.", "Adhesion.= In _pathology_, the morbid union, from inflammation, of parts normally contiguous but not adherent.", "Adhesion.= In _surgery_, the reunion of divided parts, by the adhesive inflammation; as when incised wounds heal by what is termed the 'first intention.'", "ADHE'SIVE.= _Syn._ ADHÆSI'VUS, L.; ADHÉSIF, Fr.; ADHÄSIVE, VERWACHSEND, Ger. In _pharmacy_, &c., having the quality or property of sticking or adhering. Hence adhe'siveness.", "AD'IPOCERE= (-s[=e]re). _Syn._ GRAVE-WAX[double-dagger]; ADIPOCE''RA, L.; ADIPOCIRE, Fr.; FETEWACHS, Ger. A substance resembling a mixture of fat and wax, resulting from the decomposition of the flesh of animals in moist situations, or under water. It is chiefly margarate of ammonium. Lavoisier proposed to produce this substance artificially, for the purposes of the arts. Attempts have since been made to convert the dead bodies of cattle (carrion) into adipocere, for the purposes of the candle-maker and the soap-boiler, but without success. Besides, dead animal matter can be worked up more profitably than in making artificial adipocere.", "Hatchettine or rock-fat is sometimes called 'adipocere'; and bog-butter is a substance nearly similar to it.", "AD'JECTIVE.= _Syn._ ADJECTI'VUS, L.; ADJECTIF, Fr. In _dyeing_, depending on another, or on something else; applied to those colours which require a base or mordant to render them permanent. See DYEING.", "AD'JUVANT.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ AD'JUVANS, L.; AIDANT, &c., Fr. Assistant; helping. (As a substantive--) In _prescriptions_, see PRESCRIBING (Art of).", "ADULTERATION.= Strictly speaking, this term ought only to be applied to the practice of adding substances to articles of commerce, food or drink, for the purposes of deception or gain, but a wider interpretation is frequently placed on the word than the definition given by magistrates and analysts, these latter often regarding accidental impurity, or even, in some instances, actual substitution as acts of adulteration.", "The following definition of an adulterated substance has been adopted by the Society of Public Analysts--", "A substance shall be deemed to be adulterated--", "A. _In the ease of food or drink:_", "1. If it contain any ingredient which may render such article injurious to the health of a consumer.", "2. If it contain any substance that sensibly increases its weight, bulk, or strength, or gives it a fictitious value, unless the amount of such substance present be due to circumstances necessarily appertaining to its collection or manufacture, or be necessary for its preservation, or unless the presence thereof be acknowledged at the time of sale.", "3. If any important constituent has been wholly or in part abstracted or omitted, unless acknowledgment of such abstraction or omission be made at the time of sale.", "4. If it be an imitation of or sold under the name of another article.", "B. _In the case of drugs:_", "1. If when retailed for medical purposes under a name recognised in the 'British Pharmacop[oe]ia' it be not equal in strength and purity to the standard laid down in that work.", "2. If when sold under a name not recognised in the 'British Pharmacop[oe]ia' it differs materially from the standard laid down in approved works on materia medica, or the professed standard under which it is sold.", "_Limits._ The following shall be deemed limits for the respective articles referred to:", "_Milk_ shall contain not less than 9·0 per cent., by weight, of milk solids, not fat, and not less than 2·5 per cent. of butter fat.", "_Skim Milk_ shall contain not less than 9·0 per cent. by weight, of milk solids not butter fat.", "_Butter_ shall contain not less than 80 per cent. of butter fat.", "_Tea_ shall not contain more than 8·0 per cent. of mineral matter, calculated on the tea dried at 100° C., of which at least 3·0 per cent. shall be soluble in water, and the tea as sold shall yield at least 30 per cent. of extract.", "_Cocoa_ shall contain at least 20 per cent. of cocoa fat.", "_Vinegar_ shall contain not less than 3 per cent. of acetic acid.", "The practice of fraudulent adulteration has been indulged in for centuries. In every civilised state there have been enactments against it. The Romans had their inspectors of meat and corn. In England an Act to prohibit adulteration was passed as early as 1267, and penalties against it were in force in 1581, 1604, 1836, 1851. In 1822, Accum published a work having the sensational title of 'Death in the Pot,' and in 1855 appeared Dr Hassall's book, 'Food and its Adulterations.' The information conveyed in these works, added to the revelations of the 'Lancet' Sanitary Commission, and the contributions to scientific literature on the subject of food by Letheby, Pavy, Parkes, Blyth, and others, together with the published evidence given before the House of Commons Commission appointed to carry out an inquiry into the subject, roused public attention to such a degree as to lead to the passing by the legislature of the Adulteration Acts.", "The sophistications may be divided into several distinct classes:", "1. To give weight or volume, such as water added to butter, plaster of paris to flour, &c.; red earths to annatto, sand to tea-leaves, &c.; water to milk, &c.; all these, therefore, are substitutions of worthless or very cheap articles which take the place of the real.", "2. To give a colour which either makes the article more pleasing to the eye, or else disguises an inferior one, _e.g._, Prussian blue, black lead, &c., to green teas; annatto to cheese, &c.; arsenite of copper to sweetmeats, &c.", "3. Substitutions of a cheaper form of the article, or the same substance from which the strength has been extracted put in the place of the real, _e.g._, tea mixed with spent leaves, &c.", "4. A very small class where the adulteration is really added with no fraudulent intent, but to enhance the quality of the goods sold--alum to bread in small quantities.", "The following, according to Blyth ('Dic. of Hygiène'), is a list of articles most commonly adulterated, with the names of the substances used in their sophistication:--", "ACONITIA with other alkaloids, _e.g._, delphinia, aconella, &c. ALE, common salt, _Cocculus indicus_, grains of paradise, quassia, and other bitters, sulphate of iron, alum, &c. ALLSPICE, mustard husks. ANCHOVIES, other fish, and colouring matters, _e.g._, Armenian bole, Venetian red, &c. ANNATTO, all sorts of starch, soap, red ferruginous earths, carbonate and sulphate of lime, salts, &c. ARROWROOT, various other fecula, such as sago, tapioca, potato, and others. BALSAM OF COPAIBA, turpentine and fixed oils. BEEF (POTTED), Armenian bole. BISMUTH, carbonate of lead, sometimes arsenic (this latter is an impurity not intentional). BLOATERS (POTTED), Armenian bole. BRANDY, water, burnt sugar, &c. BREAD, potatoes (mashed), alum, inferior flour, &c., &c. BUTTER, water, salt, colouring matter, lard, tallow, and other fats. CAJUPUT OIL, copper, camphor dissolved in oil of rosemary, and coloured with copper as a substitute. CALAMINE, coloured sulphate of baryta. CALOMEL, sulphate of baryta, chalk, white precipitate, white lead, pipe-clay, &c., &c. CALUMBA, tinged bryony root, root of _Frasera Walteri_, and others. CAMBOGE, starch, &c. CAMPHOR, a substitution of Borneo camphor has been made. CANTHARIDES, golden beetle, artificially coloured glass, &c. CARBONATE OF LEAD, sulphate of baryta, sulphate of lead, chalk, &c., &c. CARMINE (COCHINEAL), sulphate of baryta, bone black, &c. CASSIA (SENNA), leaves of _Solenostemma argel_, and other foreign leaves. CASTOR OIL, other oils, often small quantities of croton oil. CAYENNE, ground rice, vermilion, Venetian red, turmeric. CHAMPAGNE, gooseberry and other wines as substitutes, different colouring matters, &c. CHEESE, annatto, bole (Armenian), and other colouring matters. CHICORY, colouring matters, such as ferruginous earths, and burnt sugar, Venetian red, &c., and different flours, such as wheat, rye, beans, &c., and sometimes sawdust. CIDER, lead (as an impurity, not intentional). CIGARS, substitutions of hay and other rubbish, ", "\"The Sale of Food and Drugs Act\" has now supplemented several Acts which were passed during the present century for the prevention of adulteration. An Act prohibiting the mixture of injurious ingredients with intoxicating liquors remains unrepealed, as do also one or two statutes relating to trade frauds as for example the Adulteration of Seeds Act, 1809. These latter have not been incorporated in \"the Sale of Food and Drugs\" Act.", "Æ= ([=e]). [L.] For words sometimes written with this initial diphthong, and not found below, look under =E=.", "ÆGI'RINON= (-j[=i]'-). [Gr.] See OINTMENT.", "ÆGYPTI'ACUM=[dagger] (-j[)i]p-t[=i]'-). [Lat.] _Syn._ UNGUEN'TUM ÆGYPTIACUM, L. Oxymel or liniment of verdigris. The name originated with Hippocrates, who is said to have learned its composition in Egypt.", "ÆOL'IPILE= (-p[)i]le). A hollow ball of metal, having a slender neck with a very small orifice, contrived to exhibit the conversion of water into steam by the action of heat, and to account for the natural production of winds. It was known to the ancients, is mentioned by Vitruvius, and was studied by Descartes and others. It has been used in _surgery_ to produce eschars, in the same cases as moxas; the effect of the steam being limited by means of a piece of perforated pasteboard. When filled with alcohol, and the jet of vapour inflamed, it is sometimes employed as a blowpipe. M. Soyer used an apparatus of this kind to supply the heat in his portable furnace. The liquid, however, which he employed was camphine.", "A'ER=, ([=a]'-[)e]r). [L. prim. Gr.] Air.", "A'ERATED= ([=a]'-[)e]r-r[=a]te-[)e]d). In _chemistry_, &c., impregnated with carbonic acid. See ALKALI, LEMONADE, WATERS, MINERAL.", "AE''RIAL= ([=a]-[=e]re'-e-[)a]l). Belonging to the air or atmosphere; produced by, consisting of, depending on, or partaking of the nature of the air.", "AERIFICA'TION ([=a]-[)e]r-e-). _Syn._ AËRIFICA'TIO, L.; AÉRIFICATION, GAZÉIFICATION, Fr. In _chemistry_, the conversion of a body into gas.", "A'ERIFORM= ([=a]'-[)e]r-). _Syn._ AËRIFORM'IS, L.; AÉRIFORME, GAZÉIFORME, Fr. LUFTFORMIG, &c., Ger. In _chemistry_, air-like, gaseous.", "AEROL'OGY.= _Syn._ AËROLO'GIA, L.; AÉROLOGIE, Fr., Ger. In _physics_, a discourse or treatise of the air. In _physiology_ and _hygiène_, the doctrine of the air, more especially with regard to its salubrity and action on organised beings.", "AEROM'ETER.= _Syn._ AËROME'TRUM, L.; AÉROMÈTRE, Fr. An instrument used in aërometry.", "AEROM'ETRY=. _Syn._ AËROME'TRIA, L.; AÉROMÉTRIE, Fr.; LUFTMESSKUNST, &c., Ger. In _chemistry_ and _physics_, the art of measuring gases, and of determining their densities.", "AERONAUT'ICS.= _Syn._ AÉRONAUTIQUE, Fr. The art of sailing in, or of navigating the air. See BALLOONS.", "AEROPHO'BIA.= [L.] _Syn._ AÉROPHOBIE, Fr. In _pathology_, a dread of air (wind); a common symptom in hydrophobia, and occasionally present in hysteria and phrenitis.", "AEROSTAT'ICS.= _Syn._ AÉROSTAT'ICA, L.; AÉROSTATIQUE, Fr. That branch of pneumatics which treats of air, and other elastic fluids, in a state of rest.", "AEROSTA'TION.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ AËROSTA'TIO, L. The art of weighing the air; aërial suspension and navigation. See BALLOONS.", "ÆRU'GO= ([=e]-). [L.] The rust of brass, bronze, or copper; verdigris.", "ÆSCULIN.= C_{21}H_{24}O_{13}. A crystalline fluorescent substance existing in the bark of the horse-chestnut (_æsculus hippocastanum_) and of other trees of the genera _Æsculus_ and _Paria_. In the above-named sources Æsculin is associated with another fluorescent body called Pariin.", "Æ''THER.= See ETHER.", "ÆITHE''REA= (-th[=e]ré-). [L. pl.] Ethers.", "ÆSTHET'ICS= ([=e]z-). _Syn._ ÆSTHET'ICA, L. Medicines or agents which affect sensation. See ANÆSTHETICS and HYPERÆSTHETICS.", "ÆTHIOPS.= See ETHIOPS.", "AFFEC'TION.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ AFFEC'TIO, L. In _pathology_, a term nearly synonymous with disease.", "AFFINITY.= _Syn._ CHEMICAL AFFINITY; AFFINITAS, L.; AFFINITÉ, Fr.; VERWANDTSCHAFT, Ger. If oil and water be shaken together they produce no change upon one another, as is proved by their separating into two layers with their properties unaltered, when the mixture is allowed to remain at rest for a short time. Such bodies are said, in chemical language, to have no affinity for one another. If iodine and metallic mercury be rubbed together in a mortar they will unite in definite proportions by weight, and form a combination possessing properties totally distinct from those of its constituents. Thus, iodine is a greyish, metallic-looking solid, convertible into a violet vapour by heat, perceptibly soluble in water, and capable of producing a blue compound with starch. Mercury is a metallic, silvery-looking liquid. The product of their union (biniodide of mercury) is a scarlet powder, destitute of metallic lustre, convertible into vapour by heat, without the production of violet fumes, insoluble in water, and incapable of developing a blue colour with starch. Again, the greenish-yellow and intensely poisonous gas, chlorine, unites in definite proportions by weight with the soft, wax-like, and highly poisonous metal sodium to produce the white crystalline solid chloride of sodium (common salt), a compound which, except in very large quantities, is not only not poisonous, but actually beneficial to health.", "Such combinations are called chemical compounds, and the force which binds their constituents together is distinguished from all other attractive forces by the term affinity or chemical affinity. Bodies united by affinity are also said to have united chemically.", "Affinity is in most cases exerted between different substances, in which respect it resembles adhesion; but bodies united by adhesion, _e.g._ ink to paper, paint to wood, &c., unlike those united by affinity, suffer no change of properties.", "Affinity is exerted at immeasurable distances, therefore substances to be submitted to its influence must be brought into (apparently) actual contact. This condition is frequently fulfilled by the vaporisation, fusion, or solution of one or more of the bodies to be submitted to its action.", "In many instances substances which have no affinity for one another at ordinary temperatures manifest this power when heated.", "Whenever chemical union takes place, heat is invariably evolved; conversely, the decomposition of a chemical compound is always accompanied by an apparent loss of heat or reduction of temperature.", "Finally, the most striking phenomena characteristic of, and accompanying, chemical affinity are, development of heat, change of properties, and union in definite or constant proportions by weight.", "AFFUSION.= In _chemistry_, the washing of a precipitate, &c., for the purpose of removing soluble matters. In _medicine_, affusion is of three kinds:--", "1. _Lotions_, which consist in washing a part of the body with a sponge or rag soaked in a liquid.", "2. _Aspersions_, which consist in throwing a liquid drop by drop, like rain, upon the body.", "3. _Shower baths_, which consist in allowing a number of small streams of water to fall from a height upon the surface of the body. If the water fall from a considerable height, affusion is then termed _douche_ by the French.", "AFT'ER-DAMP.= _Syn._ CHOKE-DAMP. Carbonic acid gas resulting from explosion of air and fire-damp (light carbonetted hydrogen) in coal mines.", "AFT'ER-PAINS.= Those following childbirth. The only remedy is patience; they may, however, be frequently alleviated by small doses of morphia or liquor opii sedativus. Heated cloths and warm fomentations are sometimes useful, particularly if assisted by moderate but sufficient pressure on the abdomen, by means of a broad bandage. They seldom follow with severity the first birth.", "_Treatment for Animals._ Remove clots from parts, raise the hind-quarters. Give clysters of linseed tea, lukewarm, and laudanum or belladonna extract. Syringe out parts with Condy's fluid considerably diluted. Give internally belladonna, opium, or chloroform. Draw away milk.", "AFT'ER-WASH= (w[)o]sh). In the art of the distiller, the liquor in the still after the spirit has been drawn over.", "AG'ARIC.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ AGAR'ICUM, AGAR'ICUS, L.; BLÄTTERSCHWAMM, PILZ, SCHWAMM, Ger. In _botany_, a genus of fungi, of numerous species, embracing the mushrooms and champignons. Of these plants, some are edible; others poisonous. The term is also commonly applied to the boletus found on oaks (TOUCHWOOD), and on larches (MALE AGARIC). See MUSHROOMS.", "Fly-agaric.= _Syn._ FLY MUSH'ROOM; AGAR'ICUS MUSCA''RIA, Linn.; AMANI'TA M. One of the most narcotic and poisonous of our fungi, producing, in small doses, intoxication and a pleasing species of delirium; for which purpose it is commonly employed in Kamschatka. (Hooker.) It possesses the singular property of imparting an intoxicating quality to the urine, which continues for a long time after taking it. This secretion is, therefore, commonly saved by the natives during a scarcity of the fungus. \"Thus, with a few amanitæ, a party of drunkards may keep up their debauch for a week;\" and the intoxication so produced is capable of \"being propagated through five or six individuals.\" (Langsdorff.) Water in which it has been boiled is poisonous; but the boiled fungus itself is inert. The liquid from it is used as a fly-poison; whence the name mushroom is derived. It may be known by its rich orange-red colour in autumn.", "AG'ATE= (-[=a]te, -[)e]t[double-dagger]). [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ACHA'TES (-k[=a]'-t[=e]z), L. A semi-pellucid uncrystallised species of quartz, remarkable for its hardness, variety of colour, and susceptibility of receiving a high polish. It is an aggregate of various siliceous minerals, of which chalcedony appears generally to be the base. Carnelian, jasper, amethyst, and other similar minerals, often enter into its composition. The colours are often delicately arranged in stripes, bands, or clouds. Those which take an angular form, as the Scotch pebble, are called FORTIFICATION AGATES. It is the least valuable of the precious stones, and is chiefly made into rings, seals, beads, burnishers, &c., on account of its hardness. Its powder is used for cleansing and polishing iron, brass, &c., and to sharpen edge-tools.", "AGEING LIQUOR.= Dissolve 3 lbs. of chlorate of potash in 4 galls. of boiling water. Add 20 lbs. of powdered white arsenic to 20 lbs. of solution of caustic soda at 60° Tw., and boil until the arsenic is completely dissolved. Add the latter solution to the former, with stirring, until the mixture stands at 28° Tw.", "AG'NAIL.= See WHITLOW.", "AGRYPNOT'ICS= (-gr[)i]p-). _Syn._ ANTHYPNOT'ICS (-h[)i]p-); AGRYPNOT'ICA, ANTHYPNOT'ICA, L. In _medicine_ and _pharmacology_, agents or substances which prevent sleep; as tea, coffee, digitalis, vinegar, &c.", "A'GUE= (-g[)u]). Ague may be defined as febrile phenomena occurring in paroxysms, and observing a certain regular succession, characterised by chill, abnormal heat, and unnatural cutaneous discharge, which prove to be a temporary crisis and usher in a remission. These phenomena are developed in an uninterrupted series or succession more or less regular, which pass into each other by insensible stages. Ague is paludal fever, and has always been observed to prevail in marshy moist districts, and in low, swampy humid countries, in which seasons of considerable heat occur.", "The neighbourhood of marshes, or of a district which has been at some recent time under water; the banks of extensive lakes, and the shores of rivers and seas where the water flows sluggishly, and in some places stagnates; shallow rivers; extensive level tracts of forest land, where moisture is always present; and the surface of the land constantly covered with excavation from the ground,--these are the terrestrial physical conditions, in which marsh and littoral fevers are almost universally to be found, although it must be admitted that there are some marshy districts in which the disease does not show itself.", "In these latter localities the effects of the miasmatic poison, show themselves in cholera or typhus. No precise knowledge of the nature and source of this subtle poison which, in default of a better name we call _malaria_, has yet been acquired; indeed it has yet to be proved that _malaria_ has a distinct existence. Science has as yet been unable to discover the presence of any poisonous principle in the air of ague on other regions.", "Ague may exist without any alteration of structure being set up; but in the milder forms of this fever a greater number of organs and tissues are morbidly altered than perhaps in any other form of disease. The parts so affected are the liver, spleen, lungs, heart, brain, and the serous and mucous membranes of the body generally. Within certain limits, the specific action of the malarial poison may be said to be in the inverse ratio of the intensity of the fever which attends its action. The affections of the liver and spleen also vary greatly according to the locality in which the patient is attacked; for instance, whilst in some parts of India the spleen is the organ principally involved, in other districts of the same continent it is the liver. In England, under proper medical treatment, the patient usually recovers without any manifest derangement either of structure or impairment of function of any organ or tissue. The liver may, however, become affected if the patient suffering from the disease has been neglected for any length of time.", "Notwithstanding the opinions of Finke and Professor Colin, there appears to be considerable ground for the supposition that ague may be caused by drinking marsh and surface water. In an interesting paper on the 'Indian Annals' for 1856, Mr Bettington, of the Madras Civil Service, says:--\"It is notorious that the water produces fever and affections of the spleen.\" In confirmation of this assertion, he brings forward what seems to be some remarkably strong evidence. He cites cases of villages placed under the same conditions as to marsh-air in some of which fevers were prevalent, whilst in others they were absent; and he found on inquiry that whilst the latter villages were supplied with pure water, the inhabitants of the former had to drink marsh or mullah water, full of vegetable _débris_. In one village there were two sources of supply--a spring and a tank, the first fed by surface, and the other by marsh water. Those only who partook of the tank water were attacked by fever. Again, in Tulliwaree the fever was so universal that scarcely any inhabitant escaped it. In this village Mr Bettington caused a well to be dug, and the result was that the fever disappeared. Similar cases have occurred in this country. Twenty years ago Mr Blower, of Bedford, directed the attention of medical men to a case that occurred in a village, in which ague had nearly disappeared when a well was dug; and to another instance which occurred in the village of Houghton. In this parish almost the only family which escaped ague was that of a farmer; the members of this family partook of well water; whilst those who did not escape the disease drank ditch water.", "In the 'Indian Annals' for 1867 is a paper by Dr Moore, confirming the opinion that ague may be produced by the causes already stated, and M. Commaille ('Rec. de Mêm. de Med. Mil.,' Nov., 1868) states that in Marseilles, paroxysmal fevers, formerly unknown, have made their appearance, since the water supply to that city has been drawn from the Marseilles Canal.", "In his report for 1870 Dr Townsend, the Sanitary Commissioner for the central provinces of India, states that the natives of India hold an opinion that the use of river and tank water during rainy seasons (when the water always contains an increased quantity of vegetable matter) will almost always cause ague. Boudin ('Traité de Géographie et de Statistiques Médicale,' 1857, t. i, p. 142), records an extraordinary case. Eight hundred soldiers, in good health, embarked in three vessels to pass from Bona, in Algiers, to Marseilles, in the year 1834. They all arrived at Marseilles the same day. In two vessels there were 680 men, without a single sick one amongst them. In the third vessel, the Argo, there had been 120 soldiers; 13 died during the short passage, and of the 107 survivors no less than 98 were disembarked suffering from all forms of paludal fevers. We may presume that the diagnosis was correct, since Boudin himself examined the men. When the vessels started the crew of the Argo had not a single sick man aboard. The crew and soldiers of all the boats were exposed to the same atmospheric conditions. The influence of air must, therefore, be excluded. There is no mention of food, but it has never been suggested that food has ever been concerned in the production of malarious fever. It was a very different matter, however, with the water supply. In two of the vessels the water was good, whilst the Argo had been supplied with marsh water, which was offensive to the smell, as well as unpalatable. This latter was supplied to the soldiers, whilst the crew drank uncontaminated water. Amongst those who deny that marsh water is the cause of ague must be quoted Professor Colin. The professor, who is regarded as an authority on intermittent fever, in his work De l'Ingestion des Eaux Marécageuse comme cause de la Dysenterie et des Fièvres intermittentes,' instances numerous cases in Algiers and Italy in which impure marsh water gives rise to indigestion, diarrh[oe]a, and d", "It is open to doubt whether the malarious poison exists in the form of a gas, for the observations of microscopists go to show the extreme minuteness of the germs of disease, which are probably not more than 1/70000th of an inch in size, and it is regarded as probable that the real cause of ague is the entry into the circulation of some low forms of spores of fungi, or of some minute animalcules. Ague is always to be met with in places where fungi grow, and is always associated with what Pettenkofer calls \"the ground air\"--that is, the air contained in the interstices of the soil, no inconsiderable volume of which is drawn into every house which has a fire on the floor which rests on the earth. That animalcules (?) may exist in the blood is evidenced by the discovery of Dr Lewis, who found hair-like worms in the circulation; and whilst considering this point, we must bear in mind that the remedial agents employed to check ague, quinine, arsenic, &c., are drugs capable of destroying animal life, and it is not impossible that they may exercise a beneficial effect in destroying the spores or animalcules to which the disease may be due.", "The best means to be employed to combat malarial fevers in any district are thorough and efficient drainage (and it must be remembered that drainage purifies both the ground-air and the ground water) and a supply of wholesome water free from decomposing vegetable matter.", "That the adoption of the above means cannot fail to succeed is incontestably proved by the fact, that during the last 200 years, ague in England has diminished to a wonderful extent, in short, as good drainage and a pure water supply have prevailed, there has been a proportionate diminution of paludal poisoning.", "During the protectorate of Cromwell great mortality prevailed in London, from the ravages of ague; at that time London was as swampy as the fens of Lincolnshire. See FEVER (Intermittent).", "Ague-cake.= The popular name of a tumour felt under the false ribs on the left side, formed by enlargement and induration of the spleen, following protracted ague; also, sometimes, of indurations of the liver following ague.", "Ague-drop.= See DROPS.", "Ague-salt= (s[)o]lt). Disulphate of quinine.", "Ague-tree.= Sassafras.", "Ague-weed.= The herb thorough-wort ('Eupato''rium perfolia'tum,' Linn.).", "AIG'REMORE= ([)e]g'r-mor). [Fr.] Pulverised charcoal in the state it is used to make gunpowder.", "AIGUILLETTE= (ATTELETTE). [Fr.] In _cookery_, a term applied to several small dishes, from the articles of which they consist being mounted on silver needles, or skewers, with ornamental handles or tops. (See _engr._) They form one of the varieties of the 'hors-d'[oe]uvres' of Soyer; and are commonly served on a napkin. The skewers should be about four inches long, and of the thickness of an ordinary packing needle. The person eating what is served on them takes the head of the skewer between the thumb and fingers of the left hand, and picks it off with his fork. Those noticed by Soyer are--", "Aiguillettes à l'Éperlan= (_smelts_);", "Aiguillettes aux Huitres= (_oysters_);", "Aiguillettes de Filets de Sole= (_soles_);", "Aiguillettes de Homard= (_lobsters_);", "Aiguillettes de Langue de B[oe]uf= (_ox-tongue_);", "Aiguillettes de Ris de Veau= (_sweetbread of veal_);", "Aiguillettes de Volaille à la Jolie Fille= (_fowl_);--", "all of which are prepared in a nearly similar manner, merely varying the sauces, &c., to suit the article and palate. See ATTELETTES, HORS-D'[OE]UVRES, &c.", "AHORNZUCKER= (genuine American maple sugar). For coughs, hoarseness, and all affections of the throat and chest caused by cold. The raw maple sugar as imported. (Hager.)", "AILANTHUS.= The inner bark of the _ailanthus glandulosa_, a common tree growing in northern China, said by Dr Dudgeon to have proved very successful in dysentery.", "The _ailanthus glandulosa_ is also well known throughout the United States. Professor Hétet, of Toulon, tried the effect of the powdered bark, leaves, and various preparations of the bark or drugs, with the result of their administration being attended with purgative effect--and the discharge of worms.", "The powdered bark has been given in small cases of tape-worm in the human subject, with marked success. The dose of the powder found sufficient for the expulsion of the tapeworm was from seven or eight to thirty grains.", "AIL'MENT.= Pain, indisposition; disease. Its use is generally restricted to the non-acute, and milder forms of disease.", "AIR.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ Aer, L. (from [Greek: aêr] Gr.); LUFT, Ger.; ATMOSPHERIC AIR; THE ATMOSPHERE. This name was formerly given to any aëriform body; thus, by the old chemists ammoniacal gas was called alkaline air; oxygen,--dephlogisticated, vital, or empyreal air; carbonic anhydride (carbonic acid), fixed air; hydrogen, inflammable air; heavy carbonetted hydrogen, olefiant gas, heavy inflammable air; nitrogen,--mephitic, phlogisticated, or nitrous air. At the present time the term air is usually restricted to the gaseous envelope surrounding the solid and liquid parts of our globe.", "Air, Atmospheric= (or simply, The Air). The air chiefly consists of a mechanical mixture of four volumes of nitrogen and one volume of oxygen, or more accurately--", "By volume. By weight. Nitrogen 79·1 76·8 Oxygen 20·9 23·2 ----- ----- 100 100[12]", "[Footnote 12: At a meeting of the Paris Academy of Sciences, held on the 31st of December, 1877, it was announced that M. Cailletet had succeeded in liquefying atmospheric air.]", "We may premise our description of the functions of the constituents of the atmosphere by the following quotation from Mr Blyth's 'Dictionary of Hygiène and Public Health':--\"One of the most important properties of air is its power of penetration and its universality. Air is, indeed, present everywhere; there is scarcely a solid, however compact it may appear to be, which does not contain pores, and these pores filled with air. The soil contains no small quantity; indeed, if it were not so the numberless insects, worms, &c., which burrow in its interstices would cease to exist. The most compact mortar and walls are penetrated with it, and water of natural origin contains a large quantity of air in solution. The atmosphere is supposed to extend to a very great height, from 200 to 300 miles; it used to be considered only five (forty-five) miles high, but observations on shooting stars, &c., show that this opinion is erroneous. Owing to the force of gravity, the air is much denser near the earth, and gets more attenuated layer by layer as you ascend. If, then, the atmosphere were possessed of colour, it would be very dark just round the globe, and the tint would gradually fade into space. The air is by no means wholly gaseous; it contains, indeed, an immense amount of life, and small particles derived from the whole creation. In the air may be found animalcules, spores, seeds, pollen cells of all kind, vibriones, elements of contagion, eggs of insects, &c., and a few fungi, besides formless dust, sandy, and other particles of local origin; for example, no one can ride in a railway carriage without being accompanied with dust, a great portion of which is attracted by a magnet, and is, indeed, minute particles of iron derived from the rails. The purest air has some dust in it. There probably never fell a beam of light from the sun since the world was made which did not show, were there eyes to see it, myriads of motes; these, however, generally speaking, are quite innocuo", "The chief functions of the oxygen are to maintain respiration and support combustion, while the office of the nitrogen is to dilute the oxygen and control its energy.", "Besides nitrogen and oxygen, aqueous vapour, carbonic anhydride, ammonia, and nitric acid are met with in the atmosphere, the last especially during and shortly after thunder storms.", "Although, doubtless owing to local conditions, trifling variations may occur in the proportion of oxygen present in the atmosphere, this variation is so trifling that the difference of the amount in air from places separated by very long distances will be found in the second decimal place only; thus, whilst a portion of air taken during a balloon ascent by Mr Green gave on analysis 20·88 per cent. by vol., Dr Frankland found in air collected by himself on the summit of Mont Blanc 20·96 per cent. by vol. A still nearer approximation in uniformity in the amount of oxygen present in atmospheric air is exhibited in the following table, which gives the results of 95 analyses by Regnault on air obtained from nine different localities:--", "100 from Paris gave in 100 parts, by vol. of oxygen 20·913 to 20·999 9 from Lyons and around gave in 100 parts, by vol. of oxygen 20·918 to 20·966 30 from Berlin gave in 100 parts, by vol. of oxygen 20·908 to 20·998 10 from Madrid gave in 100 parts, by vol. of oxygen 20·916 to 20·982 23 from Geneva and Switzerland gave in 100 parts, by vol. of oxygen 20·909 to 20·993 15 from Toulon and Mediterranean gave in 100 parts, by vol. of oxygen 20·912 to 20·982 5 from Atlantic Ocean gave in 100 parts, by vol. of oxygen 20·918 to 20·965 1 from Ecuador gave in 100 parts, by vol. of oxygen 20·960 2 from Pichincha gave in 100 parts, by vol. of oxygen 20·949 to 20·981 ------ ------ Mean of all foregoing 20·949 20·988 \" of the Paris specimens 20·96", "Vapour of water is essential to the respiration of animals and plants, in order that the organs concerned in this operation may be kept in a soft and moist condition.", "Carbonic anhydride is evolved during combustion, putrefaction, and fermentation; it is also a product of the respiration of animals, and highly poisonous to them, even when diluted with large proportions of air. This gas is, however, greedily absorbed by plants, which decompose it; they assimilate the carbon and return the oxygen to the atmosphere, ready to be again consumed in supporting the life of the animal world.", "Dr Angus Smith has defined a very pure air to be one that contains with 20·99 per cent. of oxygen 0·30 of carbonic acid (anhydride).", "This latter varies in amount in the atmosphere of cities, as will be seen upon inspection of the subjoined table, extracted from Dr Smith's work 'Air and Rain':--", "Per cent. Air of Madrid, outside the walls, mean of 12 analyses, by Luna ·045 Mean of 12 analyses, within the walls of Madrid, by Luna ·051 Mean of 14 analyses, by Angus Smith, in Manchester suburbs ·369 In Manchester streets ·403 Usual weather ·0403 During fogs ·0679", "De Saussure's analyses show that there is more carbonic acid on the mountains than in the plains, as might be inferred from the comparative absence of vegetation in elevated positions. Dr Pietra Santa states that the air of hills or mountains, at the height of 2300 feet, is lighter than common air, contains a smaller proportion of oxygen, and is impregnated with a largely increased amount of aqueous vapour. It also contains a large quantity of ozone. He considers such a climate peculiarly soothing to persons suffering from chest diseases.", "Dr Angus Smith's analysis of the air from the mountainous districts of Scotland confirms the above statement of Dr Pietra Santa's. The heaths and mountains of that country are remarkably healthy localities, and the air from them gave on analysis 20·94 per cent. by vol. of oxygen, and only ·033 of carbonic acid.", "Ammonia is derived from the putrefaction of animal and vegetable substances. It is from atmospheric ammoniacal compounds that plants obtain much of the nitrogen which is essential to the formation of many parts of their structure.", "Nitric acid, like ammonia, is absorbed, and its nitrogen assimilated, by plants.", "In addition to the gases and vapours already enumerated, as well as others which exist in minute quantity, or which are of only occasional occurrence, Pasteur and other investigators have discovered in the air living germs which are capable of exciting putrefaction and fermentation, and which are competent, in some instances, to engender disease when they are injected into the blood of animals. In fact, the spread of infectious diseases, _e.g._, smallpox, typhus fever, cattle plague, &c., is attributed to the presence in the atmosphere of the germs of such maladies. These germs are believed to be living beings, which develope and multiply at the expense of the tissues of the larger animals into whose systems they have found entrance.", "Air, Vitiated.= As has been stated in the previous article, the air consists chiefly of two gases, oxygen and nitrogen. In all open places it has a similar composition, as might be concluded from the constant mingling which takes place by the agency of currents continually in movement, although sometimes to an inconsiderable extent only. Dr Angus Smith regards air as very pure when it contains not less than 20·99 per cent. by volume of oxygen, and 0·030 of carbonic anhydride (acid). According as the proportion of the former gas diminishes and that of the latter increases beyond certain limits in the air by which we are surrounded, it becomes more or less deteriorated and unfit to be breathed, particularly as the increased amount of carbonic acid is, in crowded dwellings, assembly rooms, theatres, and confined inhabited spaces, associated with deleterious and putrescent exhalations from the person.", "_The following tables exhibit the amount of carbonic acid in close places in London._", "Per-centage =I.= by volume. Chancery Court, closed doors, 7 feet from the ground, March 3 ·193 Same, 3 feet from ground ·203 Chancery Court, doors wide open, 4 feet from ground, 11·40, March 5 ·0507 Same, 12·40 p.m., 5 feet from ground ·045 Strand Theatre, gallery, 10 p.m. ·101 Surrey Theatre, boxes, March 7, 10·30 p.m. ·218 Olympic, 11·30 p.m. ·0817 Same, 11·55 p.m. ·1014 Victoria Theatre, boxes, March 24, 10 p.m. ·126 Haymarket Theatre, dress circle, March 18, 11·30 p.m. ·0757 Queen's Ward, St. Thomas's Hospital, 3·25 p.m. ·052 Edward's Ward, St. Thomas's Hospital, 3·30 p.m. ·052 Victoria Theatre, boxes, April 4. ·076 Effingham, 10·30 p.m., April 9, Whitechapel ·126 Pavilion, 10·11 p.m., April 9, Whitechapel ·152 City of London Theatre, pit, 11·15 p.m., April 16 ·252 Standard Theatre, pit, 11 p.m., April 16 ·320", "Dr Angus Smith states that out of 339 specimens of air obtained from various mines he found 35 normal or nearly so, 81 decidedly impure, and 212 exceedingly bad; he also adds that owing to the frequent firing of charges of gunpowder within the mines, and from other causes, the atmosphere is further contaminated with sulphuretted hydrogen, sulphate, carbonate, sulphide, sulphocyanide of potassium, and nitrate of potassium, carbon, sulphur, carbonate of ammonia, organic matter, sand, and sulphurous and arsenious acids.", "The air of large cities, which are the seats of manufacturing industry, is always more or less charged with the exhalations given off by chemical and other works. The sulphuric-acid works contribute sulphuric, sulphurous, nitrous, and arsenious acids; copper works, in which pyrites is employed, give off large quantities of sulphurous acid, mixed with arsenic and a little copper; manure works, in many cases, send out compounds of fluorine, besides sulphuric acid; glass works, sulphuric and hydrochloric acids; and alkali works, hydrochloric acid (although in small quantities), which very frequently contains arsenic. Of ammonia, Angus Smith remarks: \"It is one measure of the 'sewage' of the air; it is the result of decomposition. It is not, in these small quantities, hurtful, so far as we know. The ammonia is in no case free, but combined probably with hydrosulphuric, hydrochloric, and sulphuric acid in towns. In country places it is, at all events partly, united to carbonic acid.", "II. _London Air.--Carbonic Acid, Metropolitan Railway, November, 1869._", "+--------+----------------------------+------------+---------+---------+ | | | |Carbonic | Oxygen, | | Date. | Place. |Time of Day.| Acid, |per cent.| | | | |per cent.| | +--------+----------------------------+------------+---------+---------+ | 1869. |Tunnel between Gower Street | | | | |Nov. 12.|and King's Cross Stations; | 10 a.m. | ·150 | 20·60 | | |specimen taken at the open | | | | | |window, first-class | | | | | |carriage. | | | | | | | | | | | \" 12.|Tunnel between Gower Street | | | | | |and King's Cross Stations; | 7·30 p.m. | ·078 | 20·79 | | |specimen taken at the open | | | | | |window, first-class | | | | | |carriage. | | | | | | | | | | | \" 12.|Tunnel Praed Street; | | | | | |specimen taken at the open | 10·30 a.m. | ... | 20·71 | | |window, first-class | | | | | |carriage. | | | | | | | | | | | \" 15.|Specimen taken during | | | | | |journey between Gower Street| 10·15 a.m. | ·338 | 20·66 | | |and King's Cross, | | | | | |first-class carriage, window| | | | | |open. | | | | | | ", "_The Air of Mines_ (_Metalliferous_).", "+-------------+---------------------+-------+-------+-------+--------+ |Name of Mine,|Description of place,|Thermo-|Number |Oxygen,|Carbonic| |and depth |where taken and time |meter, |of Men | per | Acid, | |from surface,|when taken. |Fahr. |working| cent. | per | |in fathoms. | | |in it. | | cent. | +-------------+---------------------+-------+-------+-------+--------+ | | | | | | | | Hurst |End, 300 ft. beyond | ... | 2 | ... | 1·99 | | |a rise, 9 ft. high, | | | | | | |7 ft. wide. | | | | | | | | | | | | | Old Gang |End of level | ... | 2 | 20·58 | ·48 | | | | | | | | | \" |End of level | ... | 2 | ... | ·28 | | | | | | | | | \" |(_a_) Rise 7 ft. | ... | 2 | 20·25 | ·39 | | |high, 132 ft. from | | | | | | |current. | | | | | | | | | | | | | Grassington |(_b_) End of cross | ... | 2 | 20·94 | ·06 | | |cut, 480 ft. from | | | | | | |rise. | | | | | | | | | | | | | \" |End, 480 ft. from | ... | 2 | 19·53 | 1·59 | | |rise. | | | | | | | | | | | | | \" |Rise 60 ft. high in | ... | 2 | 19·52 | 1·72 | | |shale. | | | | | | ", "The following table, showing the amount of ammonia present in rain collected at the different places named, is from Dr Smith's work, 'Air and Rain.'", "COMPARATIVE. AMMONIA.", "That of Valentia (Ireland) taken as 1 or 100.", "Ireland, Valentia ·1 Scotland, sea-coast, country places, west 2·69 Scotland, inland, country places, west 2·96 Scotland, sea-coast, country places, average 4·10 Scotland, sea-coast, country places, east 5·51 England, inland, country places, east 5·94 England, sea-coast, country places, west 10·55 German specimens 10·61 London, 1869 19·17 Scotland, towns (Glasgow not included) 21·22 St. Helen's 25·33 Runcorn 25·72 England, towns 28·67 Liverpool 29·89 Manchester, 1869 35·33 Manchester, 1869 and 1870, average 35·94 Manchester, 1870 36·54 Glasgow 50·55", "The effects resulting from breathing an impure atmosphere are necessarily dependent upon the extent of the pollution and other conditions. When the contamination is moderate the first effect is headache, accompanied with lassitude, and a general paleness of the face and skin, owing to a diminution of the red corpuscles of the blood or to their imperfect aëration; the pulse becomes lowered, and at the same time the breathing is accelerated. When in addition to breathing such air from day to day is superadded the misfortune of an insufficiency of food, scrofula and consumption very often follow. Dr Guy has demonstrated the great mortality that is caused by consumption in those trades in which workmen pursue their calling in hot, close, gas-lit rooms, in comparison with those who pass most of their time in the open air. The amount of air required by each person in a room is no less than 2100 feet per hour; when the ventilation does not supply this amount of fresh air, the apartment smells stuffy, the furniture becomes coated with a film of organic matter, unless constantly cleaned, and the carbonic acid becomes increased beyond its normal quantity.", "Dr Parkes has shown that bronchitis and consumption are more frequently than not contracted by those who live in an atmosphere of foul air. In the years 1834 to 1847 the proportion of deaths in the ill-ventilated prison of Leopoldstadt in Vienna was 86 per 1000, out of which number 51·4 per 1000 was due to phthisis or consumption; while in the well-ventilated House of Correction in the same city the deaths were 14 per 1000, of which 7·9 were from phthisis; hence 43·5 cases per 1000 of the deaths were clearly traceable to foul air and nothing else.", "Mr Noel Hartley, in his valuable little manual, 'Water, Air, and Disinfectants,' says: \"During the outbreak of cattle plague in 1866, in sheds containing twenty to thirty cows--which the owners kept closed to such an extent that all chinks in the doors and windows were stuffed with straw and matting, under an ignorant belief that thus the plague could be kept out--very frequently the entire stock died in two or three days after the first appearance of disease; while in other cases where animals were housed in a well-cleaned and tidily-kept shed, with a plentiful supply of fresh air, not only did some of them escape the disease altogether, but the deaths were reduced to one third of the number of beasts attacked.\"", "The large supply of fresh air necessary in hospitals for contagious diseases is fully recognised by medical men, and more especially so in America. Wounds carefully protected from contact with impure air do not suppurate, and organic fluids do not putrefy. On the other hand, in a bad atmosphere sores become unhealthy, and are difficult to heal, erysipelas and hospital gangrene frequently set in, while the best prevention and the best means of cure for such afflictions is the greatest possible exposure to fresh air.", "Vitiated air, as a consequence of over-crowding, aids the spread of measles, scarlet fever, and the much to be dreaded smallpox; it brings on ophthalmia, a troublesome inflammation of the eyes, and is not unfrequently the cause of the ricketty and scrofulous condition of children. Although exposure to cold does cause such affections as bronchitis, pneumonia, cold in the head, sore throat, and other affections of the respiratory organs, it is more frequently the case that they are the result of a sudden change of temperature, such as experienced in coming out of a crowded assembly in a close, badly-ventilated building, than by actually cold weather. This is decidedly and strikingly shown by the fact which Dr de Chaumont has quoted, that the British Army when in the Crimea, when lodged in tents during extremely rigorous weather, experienced a wonderful condition of health, such a thing as a cold being an unknown complaint; but when some of the men were placed in huts which were much warmer, and into which there was a smaller circulation of fresh air, the sick rate increased, and coughs and colds began to put in an appearance. Persons who during summer and winter sleep with their windows more or less open cannot endure a night spent in the chamber with the chimney closed and the window shut. A less refreshing sleep occupies the night, and a somewhat feverish sensation is felt next morning.", "If in cold weather the window be opened only one inch at the top, the difference in the air in the bedroom is something quite beyond comprehension to those who have not paid attention to these things. See VENTILATION.", "Air, Analysis of.= Priestley's discovery of oxygen gas in 1774 prepared the way for the knowledge of the real composition of air, which was discovered about the same time by Scheele and Lavoisier. Scheele's method of operating was by exposing some atmospheric air to a solution of sulphide of potassium. Lavoisier effected the same object by the combustion of iron wire and phosphorus, and subsequently by heating mercury on a flask filled with air for some time, just below its boiling point.", "These, however, were but elementary methods, which, however creditable to the ingenuity of the great founders of modern chemistry, not only failed in accuracy, but took no account of the presence and amount of two most important constituents in the atmosphere, viz. carbonic anhydride (acid) and ammonia.", "_Determination of Aqueous Vapour._ To effect this an aspirator must be used (see ASPIRATOR). This instrument is easily made, and is not expensive. The accompanying figure will illustrate the arrangement generally adopted: _a_ is an aspirator made of galvanised iron or sheet zinc. It holds from 50 to 200 litres (from 11 to 44 gallons). By this means a known volume of air is drawn through the tubes marked _b_, _c_, _d_, _e_, which may be filled with pumice-stone moistened with strong sulphuric acid; but if the carbonic acid is to be estimated as well, _b_ and _c_ are filled with moist hydrate of lime (potash used to be employed, but hydrate of lime is to be preferred, as the potash absorbs oxygen), and _d_ and _e_ as above. Each of the tubes is accurately weighed previously to connecting them with the apparatus.", "It is imperative to have each of the tubes connected by perfectly air-tight joints. The gain of weight in _d_ and _e_ gives the water in _b_ and _c_ the carbonic acid.", "_Determination of Carbonic Acid._ A better and perhaps more exact means of determining the carbonic acid is that invented by PETTENKOFER. It may be briefly described as follows:--Baryta water of definite strength is prepared and accurately standardised by a standard solution of oxalic acid. A portion of this baryta water is then made to act upon a definite quantity of air. It will absorb the whole of the carbonic acid in that air.", "The alkalinity of the liquid will in consequence be diminished; it will take less of the oxalic-acid solution than before, which shows so much less caustic baryta, and from which the carbonic acid absorbed may be easily calculated.", "_The actual Analysis._ Two kinds of baryta water may be used, the one containing 7 grammes to the litre, the other three times that strength; 1 c. c. of the stronger = 3 m. grms. of carbonic acid; 1 c. c. of the weaker = 1 m. grm. The baryta water is best kept in the bottle represented below.", "The bottle (_a_) contains the baryta water. It has an accurately-fitting double-perforated stoppered caoutchouc. The left-hand tube is connected with the tube (_b_) containing pumice-stone moistened with potash, while the right-hand one is a syphon. When required for use the stop-cock (_f_) is opened, and suction applied by a glass tube to F. The syphon is thus filled and the stop-cock closed. If a pipette is required to be filled its nozzle is inserted at F, the stop-cock compressed, and the fluid immediately rises into the pipette.", "The air entering the bottle as the fluid decreases in _a_ is, of course, thoroughly deprived of its carbonic acid by the tubes at _b_.", "The first thing to be done is to standardise the baryta solution by a solution of oxalic acid, containing 2·8636 grammes of crystallised oxalic acid to the litre.", "Thirty c. c. of baryta solution are run into a small flask, and the oxalic acid run in from a Mohr's burette with float, the vanishing-point of the alkaline reaction being ascertained by delicate turmeric paper. As soon as a drop placed on turmeric paper does not give a brown ring the end is attained.", "The actual analysis is performed by filling a bottle of known capacity, with the aid of a pair of bellows, with the air to be analysed, then distributing over its sides 45 c. c. of the baryta water it is left for half an hour. The turbid water is poured into a cylinder, closely secured, and allowed to deposit; then take out 30 c. c. by a pipette of the clear fluid, run in the solution of oxalic acid, multiply the volume used by 1·5, and deduct the produce from the c. c. of oxalic acid used for 45 c. c. of the fresh baryta water. A different method has been suggested by Dr Angus Smith, viz. to measure the carbonic anhydride by the turbidities of the baryta water; this is, in fact, a colorimetric test. For rough approximative results Dr Smith's process will be found a very useful and convenient one. It depends upon the fact that the amount of carbonic acid in a given quantity of air will not produce a precipitate in a given quantity of lime or baryta water unless the carbonic acid is in excess. The following is one of his tables:--Columns 1 and 2 give the rates of carbonic acid in the quantity of air which will produce no precipitate in half an ounce of lime water. Column 3 is the same as column 2; but 14·16 c. c. (half an ounce) is added to give the corresponding size of the bottle, and column 4 gives the size of the bottle in ounces.", "To be used when the point of observation is \"no precipitate.\" Half an ounce of baryta water contains about ·08 gramme of baryta.", "Air at 0° C. and 760 millims. Bar.", "Carbonic Acid Volume of Size of bottle Size of bottle in the Air, Air in cubic in cubic in ounces per cent. centimètres. centimètres. Avoirdupois.", "·03 185 199 7·06 ·04 139 154 5·42 ·05 111 125 4·44 ·06 93 107 3·78 ·07 79 93 3·31 ·08 70 84 2·96 ·09 62 76 2·69 ·10 56 70 2·46 ·11 51 65 2·29 ·12 46 60 2·14 ·13 43 57 2·01 ·14 40 54 1·90 ·15 37 51 1·81 ·20 28 42 1·48 ·25 22 36 1·29 ·30 19 33 1·16 ·40 14 28 1·04 ·50 11 25 ·89 ·60 9 23 ·89 ·70 8 22 ·78 ·80 6 20 ·72 1·00 5·5 19·7 ·70", "Mr Wanklyn's process for the determination of carbonic acid in the atmosphere is as follows:--A solution of carbonate of soda is first made as follows: 4·47 grammes of gently-ignited carbonate of soda are dissolved in one litre of water, giving a solution of such a strength that 1 c. c. contains exactly 1 c. c. of carbonic acid (= 1·97 milligrammes of CO_{2}); a large quantity of baryta water (strength about 0·1 per cent.) is prepared.", "If now 100 c. c. of clear baryta water be treated with 1 c. c. of carbonate of soda, just described, a certain degree of turbidity is produced.", "If 2 c. c. of the solution be taken another degree of turbidity is produced, and so on. If, then, a bottle capable of holding 2000 c. c. of air, together with 100 c. c. of baryta water, be filled with the sample of air to be tested, there will be a certain depth of turbidity produced by shaking it up. Having got the air to expend itself on 100 c. c. of baryta water the degree is to be found by comparison with another 100 c. c. of baryta water, in which a like turbidity has been induced by means of the standard solution of carbonate.", "Every c. c. of soda solution counts for a c. c. of carbonic acid in two litres of air. A consumption of 1 c. c. will correspond to ·05 volumes of carbonic acid per cent. Good air should accordingly not take more than 1 c. c. of soda solution, air which takes already 2 c. c. being already bad.", "In order practically to carry out this method of estimating carbonic acid the following apparatus is required:--Several bottles capable of holding 2·210 c. c., and well stoppered (failing bottles of exactly the right capacity Winchester quart bottles will answer); a small pair of bellows; several colourless glass cylinders marked at 100 c. c. capacity--the Nesslerising cylinders will answer for this purpose--a graduated pipette or burette to deliver tenths of a c. c. of solution, the standard solution of carbonate of soda, and the baryta water, which may be of moderate strength.", "The testing is managed thus: Winchester quart bottles having been made clean are rinsed with distilled water, and allowed to drain a little. They are then closed with their stoppers, and are ready for use. The operator having provided himself with two or three of these bottles and a small pair of bellows enters the room the air of which is to be tested. The stopper is then removed from one of the bottles, and some air of the room blown through with the bellows, and then the stopper is replaced, and the bottle carried away to be tested.", "The testing is done by pouring into the bottle 100 c. c. of clear baryta water, shaking up for two or three minutes, and then pouring out into a cylinder of colourless glass, and observing the depth of the turbidity in various lights and against various backgrounds. The turbidity is to be exactly imitated by means of the standard solution of carbonate of soda. In order to imitate the turbidity produced by a Winchester quart full of good air only 1 c. c. of this solution of carbonate of soda is required.", "If 2 c. c. or more than 2 are required, the air is